Face the Facts (2008)
Questions and Answers about Migrants and Multiculturalism
- 2.1 How many people migrate to Australia?
- 2.2 Where do migrants come from?
- 2.3 Who can migrate?
- 2.4 Where do migrants settle in Australia?
- 2.5 What are the impacts of migration?
- 2.6 How diverse are Australians?
- 2.7 How religiously diverse is Australia?
- 2.8 What is multiculturalism?
- 2.9 Australian citizenship
- Further reading
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2.1 How many people migrate to Australia?
In 2007-08, the number of new migrants who settled permanently in Australia was 205 940.[78] The Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC) and the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines ‘settled permanently’ as:
- those persons who are already in Australia on a temporary basis and are granted permanent residence status
- those persons who arrive from an overseas destination and are entitled to stay permanently in Australia.
This figure includes:
- 149 365 people living overseas who applied for and were granted a visa allowing them to enter and stay permanently in Australia (these are called ‘settler arrivals’)
- 56 575 people already living in Australia on temporary visa arrangements (such as student or business visas) who applied for and were granted a visa allowing them to stay permanently in Australia.[79]
Did you know?
In 2007-08, new migrants who settled permanently in Australia increased by 7.3% compared to
2006-07
Overseas migrants
In 2007-08, 149 365 new settlers arrived in Australia from overseas. This figure includes: 65 404 (43.8%) under the Skill Stream, 38 404 (25.7%) under the Family Stream, 9507 (6.4%) as refugees and humanitarian entrants, 131 (0.09%) who qualified under special eligibility criteria, 34 491 (23.1%) New Zealanders (who freely enter Australia to live and work under the Trans-Tasman Travel Agreement) and 1428 (1.0%) others, including former citizens returning to Australia.[80]
The number of settler arrivals changes each year according to the number of visas issued by the (DIAC). Figure 2.1 shows these changes.
Figure 2.1 Settler arrivals, 1998-2008
Source: Department of Immigration and Citizenship Facts in Immigration, Fact Sheet 2. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/02key.htm (viewed 8 October 2008).
Post-war migration
Since 1945, 6.8 million people have come to Australia as new settlers. Australia received more than 900 000 migrants since the year 2000, compared with:
- over 900 000 in the 1990s
- 1.1 million in the 1980s
- 960 000 in the 1970s
- 1.3 million in the 1960s
- 1.6 million between 1946 and 1960.[81]
Figure 2.2 Settler arrivals in Australia: October 1945-June 2005
*This group contains six financial years.** The data to 1959 was for permanent and long term arrivals.Source: Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration: Federation to Century’s End 1901-2000, (2001), p. 26-27. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/federation/federation.pdf (viewed 15 March 2008).
Onshore migrants
Settler arrival statistics do not tell the full story about permanent migration. In recent years, a growing number of people who are already in Australia on temporary visas (such as student or business visas) have applied for, and been granted, visas allowing them to stay permanently in Australia.
In 2007-08, 56 575 people already in Australia were granted visas allowing them to stay permanently in Australia. This figure includes 42 065 (74.4%) under the Skill Stream, 12 276 (21.7%) under the Family Stream, 12 (0.02%) under special eligibility, and 2222 (3.9%) as refugees and humanitarian entrants.[82]
The combination of settler arrivals from overseas and permanent settlement by persons already in Australia is referred to as ‘permanent additions to Australia’s population’.
2.2 Where do migrants come from?
Until the 1970s, the White Australia Policy restricted immigration from non-European countries.[83] Today people can apply for a visa to settle permanently in Australia regardless of their ethnic origin, race, religion or gender.
In 2007-08, the top 10 countries of birth of permanent settlers (onshore and arrivals) were: United Kingdom (30 841); New Zealand (27 619); India (22 688); China (excluding Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) (21 208); South Africa (7762); Philippines (7382); Malaysia (5139); Korea (4953); Sri Lanka (4824); Thailand (3384) comprising 66% of the total.[84] The remaining 34% of permanent settlers were born in over 190 other countries. Opening immigration to people from a large number of countries has resulted in a great diversity of established and emerging ethnic communities in Australia.
2.3 Who can migrate?
New Zealanders can enter, live and work in Australia under the terms of the Trans-Tasman Travel Agreement and do not need a visa. All other migrants must apply for a visa to come to Australia. To get a visa, migrants must pass health and character checks and meet certain entrance criteria depending on the category they fit into. They are selected by the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC) under the following broad categories:
- Skill Stream Migrants are migrants who have skills or outstanding
abilities that will contribute to the Australian
economy.[85] In 2007-08, 107 469 people migrated to Australia as skilled migrants,
representing about 52% of total migration to
Australia. This is an increase from 98 918 skilled
migrants in 2006-07. There are several categories of skill stream migrants who
are granted visas based on a variety of eligibility
criteria:[86]
- Independent Skilled Migrants are skilled migrants who are not sponsored by a relative or employer and must pass a points test to be granted a visa. The aim of the points test is to identify factors in the applicant that will either benefit Australia or help with settlement. The accumulation of points is based on the migrant’s age, skills, qualifications, English language ability and employability, so they can contribute quickly to the Australian economy. These ‘independent skilled migrants’ form the largest component of skilled migrants each year. In 2007-08, 54 743 independent skilled migrants came to Australia, representing 51% of the total number of skilled migrants who came to Australia.
- State/Territory Nominated Independent Migrants are people who are interested in settling in states or territories where their skills are in demand and have a sound chance of gaining employment in that state or territory soon after arrival. Skill matching is included under this category. There were 3435 migrants in this category in 2007-08.
- Regional Sponsored/Independent Migrants can be independent or sponsored by an eligible relative or by a state or territory to live and work in a regional or low population growth metropolitan area in Australia. There were 4526 migrants in this category in 2007-08.
- Australian Sponsored Skilled Migrants are sponsored by Australian citizens who are related to them or by a state or territory government agency. Applicants must meet a points test which takes into account their age and work skills as well as various sponsor attributes. The Skilled Sponsored visa: introduced on 1 September 2007 for persons with good English language skills who have skills and qualifications in an occupation in need in Australia and who are sponsored by an eligible relative living in Australia or who obtain nomination from a participating state or territory government agency. There were 8343 Australian Sponsored Migrants in 2007-08.
- Employer Nominated Migrants are skilled migrants who are ‘sponsored’ by an employer. These migrants may already be working for that employer in another country and wish to transfer to Australia or may be new employees brought in to fill particular skill shortages or vacancies, particularly in regional areas of Australia. In 2007-08, 23 099 employer nominated migrants were sponsored to migrate to Australia.
- Business Skills Migrants are successful business people with established skills in business who have a genuine commitment to owning and managing a business in Australia. 6532 migrants entered Australia in 2007-08 under this category.
- Distinguished Talent Migrants are individuals who have outstanding records of achievement in a profession, occupation, the arts or sport.This is a small migrant category and included 213 migrants in 2007-08.[87]
- Family Stream Migrants are chosen according to their relationship with a sponsor who must be a close family member and an Australian resident or citizen. There is no test for skills or language ability as for skilled stream migrants. There is currently a test for most people applying for Australian citizenship (see section 2.9). The family stream has grown from 31 310 visas in 1997-98 to 45 291 visas in 2005-06. However, in this period the family stream’s overall share of the Migration Program fell from 47% to 35%. The family stream in 2007-08 had 50 680 migrants.[88]
- Humanitarian Program Entrants are chosen because they are refugees or people in need of humanitarian assistance. In 2007-08, there were 13 014 visas granted under the Humanitarian Program.[89]
2.4 Where do migrants settle in Australia?
Figure 2.3 New permanent settlers (including offshore and settler arrivals) by state/ territory of intended residence, 2007-08.
Source: Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration Update 2007 -08, (forthcoming, 2009), Table 1.4 Permanent Additions by Selected Characteristics 2007-08, p. 12. Note: Figures do not total 205 940 exactly due to some migrants not stating their place of intended settlement; percentages has been rounded to the nearest percent.
2.5 What are the impacts of migration?
Economy
Migrants contribute to the economic development of Australia in many ways, such as: filling skill shortages; putting a demand on goods and services; investing in the Australian economy; and fostering international trade through knowledge of overseas markets, business networks, cultural practices and languages other than English.
- Migration raises average incomes and increases the scale of the economy generating wealth and employment for all Australians. Economic modelling done by Access Economics estimates that under the 2007-08 Migration Program, migrants would add $610 million to the budget surplus in the first year, and $1.5 billion in 2028.[90]
- Australia's multi-lingual, multicultural workforce can increase productivity and help businesses gain a competitive advantage.
For more information see K Carrington, A McIntosh, and J Walmsley, The Social Costs and Benefits of Migration into Australia, University of New England, (2007) at: http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/research/social-costs-benefits/index.htm
Or visit the Diversity Council Australia’s (DCA) website at http://www.dca.org.au/ for more information.
Employment
Contrary to some opinions, research shows that immigration does not cause higher unemployment. In fact, migrants create jobs by increasing demand for goods and services. Research also shows that the ability of migrants to participate in the workforce increases the longer they live in Australia.
- In August 2007, the unemployment rate for all people born overseas was 4.3% compared with 4.0% for those born in Australia.[91] Immediately after their arrival the unemployment rate of new migrants is higher than the Australian average. However, their unemployment rate falls significantly over time. Long established migrants (23 year residence or more) have lower rates of unemployment than the Australian-born population (4.2 % compared with 6%).[92]
- Research also suggests that the success with which new migrants find jobs is also related to their proficiency in English, age, skill level and qualifications.[93]
- 60% of recent migrants arrive in Australia with a post-school qualification. However only 34% of these recent migrants have their qualification recognised in Australia.[94]
Welfare system
- Migrants must have lived in Australia as a permanent resident for at least two years before they can access most social security payments, including unemployment assistance, sickness benefits and student allowances.[95]
- Some family migrants must have an Assurance of Support lodged for them. This is a legal commitment to repay the Australian Government certain welfare payments paid to migrants during their Assurance of Support Period and is usually, but not necessarily, lodged by a sponsor.[96]
- Most new migrants are not eligible for age or disability pensions until 10 years after their arrival in Australia.[97]
Population
Since Federation, natural population increase (the number of births minus the number of deaths) has generally contributed more to Australia's annual population growth than migration. However, with declining fertility and an ageing population, this is likely to change over the next few decades. Immigration will become a more important influence on population growth or decline.
In recent years, there has been much debate about the need for a population policy and the role of migration in such a policy. Australia's population is an ageing one. This demographic shift has important long-term implications for Australia's future economic growth and overall living standards. Research suggests that migration can help counter some of the negative effects of an ageing population by adding to the population of the labour force.[98]
Environment
Concern has grown in recent years regarding the impacts of population growth on the natural environment. Critics of current levels of migration argue that Australia does not have the 'carrying capacity' for a larger population. Others argue that Australia's environmental problems would not disappear with a smaller population because environmental damage is caused by other factors such as wasteful consumption patterns and poor management of natural resources.[99]
Crime
Current research shows no evidence of a causal connection between crime and ethnicity: some overseas-born groups have lower crime rates and some have higher crime rates than the Australian-born population. This does not mean that crime is linked to ethnicity. Overall, the crime rate of the overseas born population has been lower than that of the Australian born population.[100] Factors such as unemployment, education, socio-economic disadvantage and lack of access to services have more bearing than ethnicity on crime rates.[101]
2.6 How diverse are Australians?
Many years of migration from a range of countries has made Australia culturally diverse.
Overseas-born
- In the 2006 Census, approximately 22% of Australia's population stated that they were born overseas. The top five places of birth of those born overseas were England (4.3%), New Zealand (2%), China (1%), Italy (1%) and Vietnam (0.8%).[102]
- In the 2006 Census, Western Australia had the highest proportion of residents born overseas (27.14%). New South Wales and Victoria have almost equal proportions of overseas-born people (23.76% and 23.79% respectively) followed by the ACT (21.71%) and South Australia (20.32%), Queensland (17.91%), NT (13.76%) and Tasmania (10.61%).[103]
- In 2007, 30% of marriages were between two people with different countries of birth.[104]
Ancestry
- In 2006, there were 8 048 204 Australians who stated that one or both parents were born overseas (40% of the total population).
- In the 2006 Census, the three most common ancestries that people identified with were Australian (37.7%), English (31.6%) and Irish (9.1%).
- Other common ancestries included Scottish (7.6%), Italian (4.3%), German (4.1%), Chinese (3.4%), Greek (1.8%), Dutch (1.6%) and Indian (1.2%).[105]
Language
- In 2006, 15.8% of Australians spoke a language other than English in their homes.[106]
- Collectively, Australians speak over 200 languages. In 2006, Italian (with 316 895 speakers) was the most popular language other than English spoken at home followed by Greek (252 226), Cantonese (244 553), Arabic (243 662) and Mandarin (220 600).[107]
2.7 How religiously diverse is Australia?
Australia has been spiritually plural for over 50 000 years given the diversity of beliefs and practices among Australia’s Indigenous peoples.[108] With the commencement of colonisation in Australia in 1788, Anglicans, Catholics, Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Jews and Muslims began arriving in Australia. At the beginning of the 20th Century, Christianity was the predominant religion in Australia, peaking at 96.9 % in 1921. Since then Christianity has progressively decreased and was 63.9% according to the 2006 Census.[109] In 1921, the Anglican Church was the largest religious organisation in Australia with 43.7% of the population identifying as Anglican. This percentage has progressively decreased and by the early 1990s, a greater portion of the population identified as Catholic.[110]
The first 20 years of Australia’s post World War II migration, which was mainly from Europe, changed the ethnic character of Australia and expanded its range of Christian churches. Post war migration: expanded and diversified Catholicism with the arrival of Italian, Dutch and Polish migrants; expanded the Greek Orthodox Church with Greek migrants; brought new Orthodox Churches from Eastern Europe; and Protestant Churches from Northern Europe. Australia’s Jewish population also expanded with the arrival of Jewish refugees.
In 2006, Catholics were the largest religious group in Australia at 25.8%, of the total population, while Anglicans were the second largest at 18.7%. The next largest religious groups were: Uniting Church at 5.7%,and Presbyterian and Reformed at 3.0%.[111] In 2006 Buddhists were 2.1% of Australia’s population and Muslims 1.7%. While small, these groups have progressively increased since the early 1990s, and in 2006 were greater than two small but older Christian faiths, Baptists, who were 1.6 % of the population; and Lutherans 1.3%. In 2006, Hindus at 0.7% of the population exceeded Jews at 0.4%.[112]
Due to changes in migration since the late 1960s, Australia now has significant and growing communities from the Buddhist, Muslim and Hindu faiths. Also due to recent immigration, Australia has small communities from the Sikh, various Chinese and Japanese religions and others. Very small groups have also formed within Australia to practice Paganism, Witchcraft and Satanism.[113]
Since the 1930’s, the percentage of Australians declaring ‘no religion’ has been steadily increasing. In 2006, 18.7% or almost one fifth of Australians claimed to have ‘No Religion’.[114]
Figure 2.4 Australia’s Religious Profile (2006)
(a) Includes Christian denominations with smaller percentages of the total population, including: Oriental Christian/ Orthodox, Brethren, Assyrian Apostolic and all other Christian.
(b) Includes Australian Aboriginal religions at 0.03% and religions at 0.01% including: Chinese religions, Japanese religions, Scientology, Wicca, other nature religions, Paganism and Satanism.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Religious Affiliation, Catalogue No.2068.0, (2007).
Religious discrimination and vilification
Discrimination on the basis of religion is unlawful in a number of states and territories in Australia: the Australian Capital Territory, Western Australia, Queensland, the Northern Territory and Victoria. States and territories use various terms to describe religion under their respective anti-discrimination legislation including ‘religious conviction’, ‘religious belief or activity’, and ‘religious affiliation’. South Australia’s Equal Opportunity Act 1984 does not cover religious discrimination.
Religious vilification is the incitement to form or express hatred of others on the basis of religion. It is unlawful in a number of states and territories in Australia including: Tasmania and Queensland under respective anti-discrimination legislation and in Victoria under the Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001.[115]
Table 2.1 Religious discrimination and religious vilification laws in Australia 2008
Federal |
NSW |
QLD |
VIC |
SA |
WA |
ACT |
TAS |
NT |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Religious Discrimination |
No* |
No** |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Religious Vilification/Hatred |
No |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
No |
Yes |
No |
*The Australian Human Rights Commission can hear complaints about religious discrimination in employment.** There is protection for ethno-religious discrimination under the NSW definition of racial discrimination.Source: Australian Human Rights Commission, Guide to the Racial Discrimination Act, http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/guide_to_rda/index.html, (viewed 11 September 2008).
2.8 What is multiculturalism?
The term ‘multiculturalism’ has a number of meanings, depending on the context in which it is being used.
- First, multiculturalism is often used to describe the diverse cultural make up of a society. This publication, for instance, sets out a range of facts which demonstrate the diversity and multicultural character of Australia’s population.
- Second, multiculturalism refers to a set of norms that uphold the right of the individual to retain and enjoy their culture.
- Third, multiculturalism is the name given to a government policy which seeks to recognise, manage and maximise the benefits of cultural diversity.[116]
Australia’s multicultural policy Multicultural Australia United in Diversity: Strategic Directions 2003-2006 expired in 2006. There is currently no federal government policy on multiculturalism. On 17 August 2007 the Race Discrimination Commissioner, Tom Calma, issued a position paper which supported multiculturalism in the three senses set out above. The paper sets out the human rights principles underlying multiculturalism and argues for the continuation of Australia’s multicultural policy.
Visit http://www.humanrights.gov.au/racial_discrimination/multiculturalism/multiculturalism2007.pdf to read Multiculturalism: A Position Paper by the Acting Race Discrimination Commissioner 2007.
2.9 Australian citizenship
Taking up Australian citizenship is one way migrants show their willingness to participate fully in Australia's democratic institutions and carry out their 'civic duty'. Table 2.2 shows the citizenship take-up rate for specific birthplace groups based on the 2006 Census. The overall citizenship take-up rate for all overseas-born Australians eligible to become citizens was 73% at the time of the Census.
A total of 121 221 persons were conferred Australian citizenship in 2007-08. Migrants from the United Kingdom (22%), India (7%), China (6%), New Zealand (5%), South Africa (4%), Iraq (3%), and the Philippines (3%) together comprised 50% of all people conferred Australian Citizenship in 2007-08.[117]
Citizenship testing
On 30 May 2007 the Australian Citizenship Amendment (Citizenship Testing) Bill was introduced into parliament. The Bill amended the Australian Citizenship Act 2007. The law now requires most permanent residents to complete the test successfully before applying for Australian citizenship. The Australian citizenship test commenced on 1 October 2007. According to the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC) the test requires those seeking Australian citizenship to have a basic understanding of English and an adequate knowledge of Australia and Australian values.[118]
Visit http://www.immi.gov.au/about/reports/annual/2006-07/html/outcome2/output2_3.htm for more information about citizenship testing.
Visit http://www.humanrights.gov.au/legal/submissions/2007/aust_citizenship_amendment.html for the Commission’s Submission to the Legal and Constitutional Affairs Committee on the Australian Citizenship Amendment Bill (Citizenship Testing Bill) 2007.
Table 2.2 Citizenship rates for overseas-born people resident in Australia for two years or more- 2006
Country of birth |
Citizenship rate |
|---|---|
Greece |
97.2% |
Vietnam |
93.7% |
Philippines |
88.1% |
Italy |
80.5% |
Netherlands |
78.0% |
South Africa |
77.1% |
Germany |
74.4% |
India |
67.8% |
China (excl. SARs & Taiwan) |
67.0% |
United Kingdom |
65.9% |
New Zealand |
39.4% |
Total overseas-born |
72.9% |
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Table 14.40 Citizenship Rates, overseas-born people resident in Australia for two years or more – 2006, Year Book Australia 2008, Catalogue No. 1301.0,(2008), p. 460.
Further reading
How many people migrate to Australia?
Department of Immigration and Citizenship Population Flows: Immigration Aspects, 2006-07 Edition. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/popflows2006-7/index.htm.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration: Federation to Century's End, 1901-2001. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/federation/federation.pdf.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship Facts in Immigration, Fact Sheet 2. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/02key.htm.
Where do migrants come from?
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Population Flows: Immigration Aspects, 2006-07 Edition. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/popflows2006-7/index.htm.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration Update 2006-07. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/immigration-update/update_june07.pdf.
Who can migrate?
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Population flows: Immigration aspects 2006-07 Edition. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/popflows2006-7/ch6pt03.pdf.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Overview of Family Stream Migration, Fact Sheet 29. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/29overview_family.htm.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Overview of Skilled Migration to Australia, Fact Sheet 24. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/24overview_skilled.htm.
Where do migrants settle in Australia?
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, State Specific Regional Migration, Fact Sheet 26. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/26state.htm.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration Update 2006-2007. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/immigration-update/update_june07.pdf.
James Jupp et al, Metropolitan Ghettoes and Ethnic Concentrations, Volume 1, Centre for Multicultural Studies, University of Wollongong, 1990.
What are the impacts of migration?
EconomyDepartment of Immigration and Citizenship Estimated fiscal impact 2007-2008 and 2008-2009, Commonwealth of Australia, at: http://www.minister.immi.gov.au/media/media-releases/2008/est-fiscal-impact0708.pdf.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Estimated fiscal impact 2007-2008 and 2008-2009, Commonwealth of Australia, at: http://www.minister.immi.gov.au/media/media-releases/2008/est-fiscal-impact0708.pdf.
B Cope & M Kalantzis, Productive Diversity: Work and Management in Diverse Communities and Global Markets, Pluto Press, Sydney, (1997).
J Soon, 'Stelzer on Immigration: Some lessons for Australia', Policy, vol. 17 (4), (2001-02).
R Garnaut, Migration to Australia and Comparisons with the United States: Who Benefits?, Department of Immigration and Citizenship. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/pdf/mig_aust_us_compare.pdf.
Access Economics, The Importance of Age in Migrants, Fiscal Impact, Prepared for DIAC, 2003. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/pdf/migrant_age_on_arrival.pdf.
Employment
B Birrell, Skilled Labour: Gains and Losses, Centre for Population and Urban Research, Monash University, July 2001.
D Cobb-Clark, 'Immigration and unemployment: New Australian evidence', in J Jupp (ed), Immigration and Multiculturalism: Global Perspectives, Committee for Economic Development of Australia, November 1999.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Population flows: Immigration aspects 2006-07, Commonwealth of Australia. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/popflows2006-7/ch6pt03.pdf.
Welfare system
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Assurance of Support, Fact Sheet 34. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/34aos.htm.
Population
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Population Projections, Fact Sheet 15. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/15population.htm.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Population flows: Immigration aspects 2006-07. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/popflows2006-7/ch6pt03.pdf.
Productivity Commission, Policy Implications of the Ageing of Australia's Population Conference, 10 August 1999. At http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/9196/ageing.pdf.
P McDonald & R Kippen, The Impact of Immigration on the Ageing of Australia's Population, Department of Immigration and Citizenship, May 1999. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/statistics/population/ageing/index.htm.
M Fraser, A Message to Participants in the Population Summit, (Speech delivered at the Population Summit, Melbourne, February 2002). At http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/downloadhansard/pdf/Assembly/Autumn%202002/Assembly%20Parlynet%20Extract%2020%20March%202002%20from%20Book%202.pdf.
Environment
B Foran & F Poldy, Future Dilemmas: Options to 2050 for Australia's Population Technology, Resources and Environment, CSIRO & DIAC. At http://www.cse.csiro.au/research/futuredilemmas/.
B Carr, Opening Speech by the New South Wales Premier, (Speech delivered at the National Conference of Australians for an Ecologically Sustainable Population, Sydney, August 1997). At: http://home.vicnet.net.au/~aespop/carrspeech.htm.
Sustainable Population Australia Website. At http://www.population.org.au
Crime
Australian Bureau of Statistics, Prisoners in Australia, Catalogue No. 4517.0, 22 January 2004.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, The Character Requirement, Fact Sheet 79. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/79character.htm.
J Collins et al, Kebabs, Kids, Cops and Crime, Pluto Press, Annandale, 2000.
K M Hazlehurst, Migration, Ethnicity and Crime in Australian Society, Australian Institute of Criminology, September 1987.
R White, S Perrone, C Guerra & R Lampugnani, Overview Report: Ethnic Youth Gangs in Australia: Do They Exist? Australian Multicultural Foundation, Melbourne, 1999. At http://www.aic.gov.au/conferences/policing/guerra.pdf.
Australian Institute of Criminology Website, at: http://www.aic.gov.au.
R White, 'Racism, Policing and Ethnic Youth Gangs', Current Issues in Criminal Justice, Vol. 7 (3), March 1996.
Mukherjee, Ethnicity and Crime: trends & issues in crime and criminal justice No. 117, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra, 1999. At http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/ti117.pdf.
How diverse are Australians? How religiously diverse is Australia?
Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006 Census Quick Stats, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008), http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ProductSelect?newproducttype=QuickStats&btnSelectProduct=View+QuickStats+%3E&collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=0&geography=&method=&productlabel=&producttype=&topic=&navmapdisplayed=true&javascript=true&breadcrumb=LP&topholder=0&leftholder=0¤taction=201&action=401&textversion=false#Country%20of%20Birth.
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, The People of Australia: Statistics from the 2001 Census, 2003, Commonwealth of Australia. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/pdf/people_of_australia.pdf.
Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year Book Australia 2007, Catalogue No. 1301.0. At http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/1301.02007?OpenDocument.
Australian Multicultural Foundation and DIMIA, Religion, Cultural Diversity and Safeguarding Australia, 2004. At http://www.amf.net.au/rsch_research_religionDiversityCohesion.shtml.
Arab Australians
A W Ata, 'Arabs, images and the Western/Australian media', Eastern Anthropologist, Vol. 40 (3), 1987.
G Hage, Arab-Australians Today: citizenship and belonging, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2002.
M Humphrey, 'The Lebanese War and Lebanese Immigrant Cultures: a comparative study of Lebanese in Australia and Uruguay', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 9(4), 1986.
M Humphrey, 'Sectarianism and the Politics of Identity: the Lebanese in Sydney', in Hourani & Shehadi (eds) The Lebanese in the World: A Century of Emigration, Centre for Lebanese Studies, London, 1992.
Muslim Australians
G Bouma, Many Religions, All Australian: Religious Settlement, Identity and Cultural Diversity, Christian Research Association, Melbourne, 1997. At http://www.cra.org.au/pages/00000079.cgi.
B Cleland, Muslims in Australia: A Brief History (excerpts), Islamic Council of Victoria, 2002. At http://www.multiculturalaustralia.edu.au/doc/cleland_islam.pdf.
M Humphrey, Islam, Multiculturalism and Transnationalism: From the Lebanese Diaspora, Centre for Lebanese Studies, London, 1998.
Islamic Council of New South Wales, A Brief History of the Muslim Community in Australia. At http://www.icnsw.org.au/index.php?page=muslimsinaus.
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs and Australian Multicultural Foundation; A Saeed, Muslim Australians: Their Beliefs Practices and Institutions. At http://www.amf.net.au/PDF/religionCulturalDiversity/Resource_Manual.pdf.
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Isma - Listen: National consultations on eliminating prejudice against Arab and Muslim Australians. At http://www.humanrights.gov.au/racial_discrimination/isma/index.html.
What is multiculturalism?
Advisory Council on Multicultural Affairs, National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia, Canberra, 1989. At http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/agenda/agenda89/toc.htm.
Commonwealth of Australia, Multicultural Australia: United in Diversity, 2003. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/settle/_pdf/united_diversity.pdf.
G Blainey, All for Australia, Methuen-Haynes, Sydney, 1984.
G Hage, White Nation: Fantasies of White Supremacy in a Multicultural Society, Pluto Press, Sydney, 1998.
I Ang et al, Living Diversity: Australia's Multicultural Future, Special Broadcasting Service, Sydney, 2002.
J Jupp, From White Australia to Woomera - The Story of Australian Migration, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002.
J Jupp, Understanding Australian Multiculturalism, Canberra, 1996.
M Kalantzis & B Cope, A Place in the Sun: Recreating the Australian Way of Life, Harper Collins, Sydney, 2000.
F Galbally, Migrant Services and Programs: Report of the Review of Post-arrival Programs and Services for Migrants (the Galbally Report), Canberra, 1978.
National Multicultural Advisory Council, Australian Multiculturalism for a New Century: towards inclusiveness, Canberra, April 1999. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/nmac/index.htm.
R Birrell & Katharine Betts, 'Australians' Attitudes to Migration', Review (Institute of Public Affairs), Vol. 53(4), December 2001, pp 3-5.
R Birrell, 'The Dynamics of Multiculturalism in Australia', in David Lovell et al, (eds), The Australian Political System, Longman, Melbourne, 1995.
M Fraser, Migrant Centres, Reconciliation and Multiculturalism, (Speech delivered at the 2001 Harmony Day Oration, Murdoch University, Western Australia, 21 March 2001).
Australian citizenship.
A Davidson, From Subject to Citizen: Australian Citizenship in the Twentieth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997.
A M Jordens, Alien to Citizen: Settling Migrants in Australia 1945-1975, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1997.
A M Jordens, Redefining Australians: Immigration, Citizenship and National Identity, Hale & Iremonger, Sydney, 1995.Department of Immigration and Citizenship, ‘Australian citizenship’, Annual Report 2006-07, Commonwealth of Australia. At http://www.immi.gov.au/about/reports/annual/2006-07/html/outcome2/output2_3.htm.
Footnotes
[78] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration Update 2007-2008, Commonwealth of Australia (forthcoming, 2009).
[79] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration Update 2007-2008, Commonwealth of Australia (forthcoming, 2009).
[80] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration Update 2007-2008, Commonwealth of Australia (forthcoming, 2009).
[81] Department of Immigration and Citizenship Key Facts in Immigration, Fact Sheet 2. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/02key.htm (viewed 05 August 2008).
[82] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration Update 2007-2008, Commonwealth of Australia (forthcoming, 2009).
[83] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Abolition of the ‘White Australia’ Policy, Fact Sheet 8. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm (viewed 22 March 2008).
[84] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Immigration Update 2007-2008, Commonwealth of Australia (forthcoming, 2009).
[85] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Overview of Skilled Migration to Australia, Commonwealth of Australia, (2007), http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/24overview_skilled.htm (viewed 10 February 2008).
[86] Department of Immigration and citizenship, Overview of Skilled Migration to Australia, Fact Shet 24.At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/24overview_skilled.htm (viewed 20 August 2008).
[87] Department of Immigration and citizenship, Overview of Skilled Migration to Australia, Fact Sheet 24. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/24overview_skilled.htm (viewed 20 August 2008).
[88] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Overview of Family Stream Migration, Fact Sheet 29. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/29overview_family.htm (viewed 25 September 2008).
[89]Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Australia’s Refugee and Humanitarian Program, Fact Sheet 60. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/60refugee.htm, (viewed 15 September 2008).
[90] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Estimated fiscal impact 2007-2008 and 2008-2009, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008). At http://www.minister.immi.gov.au/media/media-releases/2008/est-fiscal-impact0708.pdf (viewed 05 September 2008).
[91] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Population flows: Immigration aspects 2006-07, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008), p. 87. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/popflows2006-7/ch6pt03.pdf (viewed 06 April 2008).
[92] D Cobb-Clark, “Immigration and Unemployment: New Australian evidence”, in J Jupp, (ed) Immigration and Multiculturalism: Global Perspectives, Committee for Economic Development of Australia, (1999).
[93] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Migrant Labour Market Outcomes, Fact Sheet 14. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/14labour.htm (viewed 15 February 2008).
[94] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Labour Force Status and Other Characteristics of Migrants, Catalogue No. 6250.0, (2007), p. 4. At http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/6250.0Nov%202007?OpenDocument viewed 08 September 2008).[95] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, What support is there if I do not find work? http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/settle-in-australia/everyday-life/work/whatsupport.htm (viewed 10 February 2008).
[96] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Assurance of Support, Fact Sheet 34. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/34aos.htm (viewed 25 February 2008).
[97] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Parent Visa Options, Commonwealth of Australia, http://www.immi.gov.au/migrants/family/family-visas-parent.htm (viewed 15 February 2008).
[98] P McDonald, and R Kippen, The Impact of Migration on the Ageing of Australia’s Population, Commonwealth of Australia, (1999), p. 21. At http://www.immi.gov.au/media/statistics/population/ageing/_pdf/ageing.pdf (viewed 10 February 2008).
[99] B Foran, and F Poldy, Dilemmas Distilled – Options to 2050 for Australia’s population,technology, resources and environment, CSIRO, (2002), http://www.cse.csiro.au/publications/2002/dilemmasdistilled.pdf (viewed 10 February 2008).
[100] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Prisoners in Australia - 2007, Commonwealth of Australia, (2007). At http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/lookupMF/8D5807D8074A7A5BCA256A6800811054 (viewed 05 April 2008).
[101] S Mukherjee, Ethnicity and Crime: trends & issues in crime and criminal justice, Australian Institute of Criminology, (1999). At http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/ti117.pdf (viewed 20 January 2008).
[102] Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006 Census Quick Stats, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008). At http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ProductSelect?newproducttype=QuickStats&btnSelectProduct=View+QuickStats+%3E&collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=0&geography=&method=&productlabel=&producttype=&topic=&navmapdisplayed=true&javascript=true&breadcrumb=LP&topholder=0&leftholder=0¤taction=201&action=401&textversion=false#Country%20of%20Birth (viewed 10 September 2008).
[103] Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006 Census Data by Topic, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008). At http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/TopicList?prenavtabname=Topic%20List&collection=Census&period=2006&breadcrumb=T&&navmapdisplayed=true&textversion=false& (viewed 01 April 2008).
[104] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Marriages, Australia 2007, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008). At http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/3306.0.55.0012007?OpenDocument (viewed 20 October 2008).
[105] Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006 Census Data by Topic, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008). At http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/TopicList?prenavtabname=Topic%20List&collection=Census&period=2006&breadcrumb=T&&navmapdisplayed=true&textversion=false& (viewed 01 April 2008).
[106] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Language Spoken at Home (Full classification list) By Sex. Catalogue Number 2068.0 (2008). At http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?action=404&documentproductno=0&documenttype=Details&order=1&tabname=Details&areacode=0&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&javascript=true&textversion=false&navmapdisplayed=true&breadcrumb=POTLD&&collection=Census&period=2006&productlabel=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&topic=Language& (viewed 11 September 2008).
[107] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Marriages, Australia 2007, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008).
[108] H Carey, Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions, (1996).
[109] H Mol, the Faith of Australians, (1985) and H Carey, 1996 Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions, (1996).
[110] H Mol, the Faith of Australians, (1985) and H Carey, 1996 Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions, (1996).
[111] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Religious Affiliation, Catalogue No.2068.0, (2007).
[112] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Religious Affiliation, Catalogue No.2068.0, (2007).
[113] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Religious Affiliation, Catalogue No.2068.0, (2007).
[114] Australian Bureau of Statistics, Religious Affiliation, Catalogue No.2068.0, (2007).
[115] See Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001 (Vic) s 8; Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (QLD) s 131A; and Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 (Tas) s 19.
[116] C Inglis, Policy Paper No. 4, Multiculturalism: New Policy Responses to Diversity, UNESCO, (1995). At http://www.unesco.org/most/pp4.htm (viewed 20 September 2008).
[117] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, emailed responses to the Australian Human Rights Commission, (15 October 2008).
[118] Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Australian Citizenship, http://www.immi.gov.au/about/reports/annual/2006-07/html/outcome2/output2_3.htm (viewed 11 September 2008).
